Investigating the Impact of Salt Dust on Morpho-Physiological Characteristics and the Air Pollution Tolerance Index in Several Halophyte Species

Amiri, Mina; Mosleh Arani, Asghar; Najafi Zilaie, Mahmood

[Home ] [Archive]

[ فارسی ]

Main Menu

Home

Journal Information

Articles archive

For Authors

For Reviewers

Registration

Contact us

Site Facilities

Search in website

Receive site information

Volume 13, Issue 27 (3-2026)

PEC 2026, 13(27): 157-173

Back to browse issues page

Investigating the Impact of Salt Dust on Morpho-Physiological Characteristics and the Air Pollution Tolerance Index in Several Halophyte Species

Mina Amiri¹

, Asghar Mosleh Arani ^*

, Mahmood Najafi Zilaie³

1- Department of Arid Land and Desert Management. Faculty of Natural Resources and Desert Studies, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran.
Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Resources, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran., Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Resources, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran. , amosleh@yazd.ac.ir
3- Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Ahvaz, Iran.

Abstract: (1072 Views)

A significant increase in salt-dust storms in recent years has caused extensive and sometimes irreversible damage to arid ecosystems. This research investigated the effects of saline dust on the morpho-physiology and Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) of three halophyte species Haloxylon ammodendron, Nitraria schoberi, and Halostachys belangeriana. The aim was to uncover the plants' adaptive responses to the emerging stress of saline dust and ultimately provide practical outputs for the sustainable management of vulnerable ecosystems. For this purpose, one-year-old seedlings of these species were subjected to greenhouse dust treatments with salinity levels of 0 (control), 8, 24, 48, and 72 dS/m, applied every two weeks over a three-month period. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with three replications. Physiological indices measured included chlorophyll a, b, and total chlorophyll, leaf Relative Water Content (RWC), ascorbic acid, nutritional elements (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), and the Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI). The results indicated that both plant species and salinity concentration had a significant effect on most of the measured traits. Data from the various indices were analyzed using a completely randomized design and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Duncan's test was used for mean comparisons. Nitraria showed the highest values for total chlorophyll (5.77 mg/g), RWC (82.25%), ascorbic acid (0.34 mg/g), and APTI (8.60), whereas Haloxylon had the lowest chlorophyll values and the highest potassium content (31.59 mg/g). Increasing salinity up to 48 dS/m led to a significant increase in chlorophyll (up to 49%), ascorbic acid (up to 0.59 mg/g) in Nitraria, and nutritional elements (phosphorus up to 1366 μg/g). Nitraria showed an increase in Potassium up to 48 dS/m (31.21 mg/g), while showing a significant decrease in Haloxylon at higher levels. Nitraria was identified as the most resistant species, with a high APTI and maintained physiological efficiency up to 48 dS/m, while Haloxylon was identified as the most sensitive species. The increase in indices such as chlorophyll and ascorbic acid up to moderate salinity levels indicates the presence of adaptive mechanisms in these plants. Utilizing Nitraria schoberi, due to its superior resistance to saline dust, is proposed as a biological and low-cost solution for the management of environmental crises in Iran's arid regions.

Article number: 10

Keywords: Arid ecosystems, Salt dust, Halophyte, Air pollution tolerance index, Physiological characteristics

Full-Text [PDF 1787 kb] (350 Downloads)

Type of Study: Research | Subject: Special
Received: 2025/08/25 | Accepted: 2025/09/13 | Published: 2026/03/11

References

1. Abuduwaili, J., Zhaoyong, Z., Fengqing, J., Dongwei, L. 2015. The detrimental impacts of salt dust accumulation on cotton leaf photosynthesis and cellular physiological characteristics in the Ebinur Basin, Northwest China. PLOS ONE, 10(5): e0124546. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124546

2. Aghdam, M. Z., Jalili, F. 2023. Influence of salinity on chlorophyll concentrations in 20 wheat genotypes with varying sensitivity and tolerance. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 29(4): 669–674.

3. Akram, N. A., Shafiq, F., Ashraf, M. 2017. Ascorbic acid as a potential oxidant scavenger and its significance in plant growth and abiotic stress resilience. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8: 613. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00613

4. Al-Farraj, A. 2008. Development of desert pavement along the shorelines of Lake Eyre (South), South Australia. Geomorphology, 100(1): 154–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.10.016

5. Alghamdi, S. A. 2024. Comprehensive review on the effects of drought and salinity on plant growth. SABRAO Journal of Breeding and Genetics, 56(6): 2331-2340.

6. Amini Hajiabadi, A., Mosleh Arani, A., Ghasemi, S., Rad, M. H., Etesami, H., Shabazi Manshadi, S., Dolati, A. 2021. Exploring the rhizosphere of halophytic rangeland plants for halotolerant bacteria to enhance growth and yield of wheat under salinity stress. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 163: 139-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2021.03.059

7. Amujiri, A. N., Nweze, A. E., Ogboji, L. O., Ikegbunam, C. N., Umejiaku, C. M., Okwagbe, O. E., Ojua, E. O., Osayi, E. E. 2024. Assessment of Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) and Expected Performance Index (EPI) of plants along Nsukka, Enugu Road, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Biology, 20(1): 113–129. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajob/2024/v20i12465

8. Arnon, A. N. 1967. Procedure for chlorophyll extraction in plants. Agronomy Journal, 23: 112-121.

9. Asch, F., Dingkuhn, M., Dörffling, K., Miezan, K. 2000. The leaf K/Na ratio as a predictor of salinity-induced yield loss in irrigated rice. Euphytica, 113(2): 109-118. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003981313160

10. Ashraf, M. 2004. Key physiological selection criteria for plant salt tolerance. Flora, 199(5): 361-376. https://doi.org/10.1078/0367-2530-00165

11. Ashraf, M., Harris, P. J. C. 2013. Overview of photosynthesis in stressful environments. Photosynthetica, 51(2): 163–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11099-013-0021-6

12. Aycan, M., Baslam, M., Asiloglu, R., Mitsui, T., Yildiz, M. 2021. Development of new bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes with high salt tolerance and insights into their tolerance mechanisms. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 166: 314-327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2021.05.042

13. Bahadoran, M., Mortazavi, S. N., Hajizadeh, Y. 2019. Assessment of anticipated performance index, biochemical, and physiological parameters of Cupressus arizonica Greene and Juniperus excelsa Bieb for urban greenbelt development and air pollution biomonitoring. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 21(5): 496–502. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2018.1537251

14. Boroughani, M., Hashemi, H., Hosseini, S. H., Pourhashemi, S., Berndtsson, R. 2019. The desiccation of Lake Urmia: A new source of regional dust. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters. https://doi.org/10.1109/LGRS.2019.2950342

15. Bremner, J. M., Mulvaney, C. S. 1982. Total nitrogen determination. In A. L. Page, R. H. Miller, D. R. Keeney (Eds.), Methods of soil analysis: Part 2 Chemical and microbiological properties (2nd ed., pp. 595-624). American Society of Agronomy, Soil Science Society of America.

16. Elloumi, N., Mezghani, I., Rouina, B. B., Ben Abdallah, F. 2018. A comparative analysis of the air pollution tolerance index (APTI) of various fruit plant species in the industrial area of Sfax, Tunisia. Pollution, 4(3): 439-446. https://doi.org/10.22059/poll.2018.245746.350

17. Etesami, H. 2020. Improving phosphorus fertilizer efficiency through microorganisms. In R. K. Meena (Ed.), Nutrient dynamics for sustainable crop production (pp. 215–245). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8660-2_8

18. Fallahifar, F., Mosleh Arani, A., Tabandeh Saravi, A., Dashti, H. 2017. Variability in pigments, proline, soluble sugars, and ion content across three populations of Haloxylon ammodendron. Desert Ecosystem Engineering Journal, 6(14): 1-10.

19. Farieri, E., Toscano, S., Ferrante, A., Romano, D. 2016. Identification of ornamental shrubs tolerant to saline aerosols for urban and peri-urban greening initiatives. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 18(3): 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.04.011

20. Frydenvang, J., van Maarschalkerweerd, M., Carstensen, A., Mundus, S., Schmidt, S. B., Pedas, P. R., Laursen, K. H., Schjoerring, J. K., Husted, S. 2015. Sensitive detection of phosphorus deficiency in plants using chlorophyll a fluorescence. Plant Physiology, 169(1): 353–361. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.15.00823

21. Ghaeminia, A. M., Hakimzadeh Ardakani, M. A., Taghizadeh Mehrjardi, R., Dehghani, F. 2022. Seasonal variations in salt deposition from dust in northern Yazd-Ardakan plain. Desert Ecosystem Engineering Journal, 7(20): 33-44. https://doi.org/10.22052/deej.2018.7.20.11

22. Gibson, T. S. 1988. Carbohydrate metabolism and interactions between phosphorus and salinity in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Plant and Soil, 111(1): 25-35. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02182033

23. Goudarzi, G., Shirmardi, M., Naimabadi, A., Ghadiri, A., Sajedifar, J. 2019. Chemical and organic characteristics of PM2.5 particles and them in vitro cytotoxic effects on lung cells: A study on Middle Eastern dust storms in Ahvaz, Iran. Science of the Total Environment, 655: 434–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.153

24. Gupta, B., Huang, B. 2014. Mechanisms underlying salinity tolerance in plants: Physiological, biochemical, and molecular characterization. International Journal of Genomics, 2014: Article 701596. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/701596

25. Hamada, A. M., El-Enany, A. E. 1994. The impact of NaCl salinity on growth, pigment composition, mineral content, and gas exchange in broad bean and pea plants. Biologia Plantarum, 36(1): 75-81. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02921269

26. Ilangumaran, G., Smith, D. L. 2017. The role of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria in mitigating salinity stress: A systems biology perspective. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8: 1768. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.01768

27. Kaya, C., Tuna, A. L., Higgs, D. 2006. The effect of silicon on plant growth and mineral nutrition of maize under water stress. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 29(8): 1469-1480. https://doi.org/10.1080/01904160600837238

28. Khazaei, Z. 2021. Functional analysis of Seidlitzia rosmarinus, Nitraria schoberi L., Haloxylon aphyllum, Zygophyllum eurypterum, and Ephedra major desert species. In Proceedings of the 1st Scientific Research Conference on Urban Planning, Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment (pp. 1-7). [Conference Paper]

29. Khusfi, Z. E., Khosroshahi, M., Roustaei, F., Mirakbari, M. 2020. Spatial and seasonal analysis of sand-dust events and their correlation with atmospheric conditions and vegetation cover in central Iran’s semi-arid regions. Geoderma, 365: Article 114225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114225

30. Kochert, G. 1978. Determination of carbohydrates using the phenol-sulfuric acid method. In J. A. Hellebust J. S. Craigie (Eds.), Handbook of phycological methods: Physiological and biochemical methods (pp. 95-97). Cambridge University Press.

31. Kwon, K. J., Odsuren, U., Kim, S. Y., Yang, J. C., Park, B. J. 2021. Comparison of particulate matter removal efficiency of 11 herbaceous landscape plants. Journal of People Plants and Environment, 24(3): 267–275. https://doi.org/10.11628/ksppe.2021.24.3.267

32. Kwon, K. J., Urrintuya, O., Kim, S. Y., Yang, J. C., Sung, J. W., Park, B. J. 2020. Assessment of the particulate matter removal potential of 12 woody plant species for landscape planting. Journal of People Plants and Environment, 23(6): 647–654. https://doi.org/10.11628/ksppe.2020.23.6.647

33. Liu, D.W. 2010. Impact of saline dust on the physiological properties of plants in the Ebinur Lake region. Arid Zone Research, 26(4): 533–542. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1148.2009.00533

34. Luis, M., Igreja, A., Casimiro, A. P., Joao, S. P. 2008. Carbon dioxide exchange above Mediterranean C3/C4 grasslands during two climatologically distinct years. Global Change Biology, 14(3): 539-555. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01507.x

35. Mansour, E., Moustafa, E. S. A., Desoky, E.-S. M., Ali, M. M. A., Yasin, M. A. T., Attia, A., Alsuhaibani, N., Tahir, M. U., El-Hendawy, S. 2020. Comprehensive evaluation for identifying salt tolerance in bread wheat genotypes under real saline field conditions. Plants, 9(10): 1324. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9101324

36. Meng, X., Zhou, J., Sui, N. 2018. Current understanding and recent advances in the mechanisms of salt tolerance in halophytes. Open Life Sciences, 13(1): 149–154. https://doi.org/10.1515/biol-2018-0020

37. Moghim, S., Ramezanpoor, S. 2019. Characterization of aerosol types over the Lake Urmia Basin. E3S Web of Conferences, 99: Article 01006. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20199901006

38. Molnár, V. É., Simon, E., Tóthmérész, B., Ninsawat, S., Szabó, S. 2020. Vegetation stress induced by air pollution – Utilizing the air pollution tolerance index as a rapid assessment tool for urban health. Ecological Indicators, 113: Article 106234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106234

39. Moreau, D., Bardgett, R. D., Finlay, R. D., Jones, D. L., Philippot, L. 2019. A plant-centric view on nitrogen cycling within the rhizosphere. Functional Ecology, 33(4): 540–552. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13303

40. Munns, R., James, R. A. 2003. Methods for screening salinity tolerance: A case study involving tetraploid wheat. Plant and Soil, 253(1): 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024553303144

41. Nadeem, S. M., Zahir, Z. A., Naveed, M., Nawaz, S. 2013. Alleviating the adverse effects of salinity on wheat growth and yield through plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria in naturally saline environments. Annals of Microbiology, 63(1): 225–232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13213-012-0465-0

42. Najafi Zilaie, M., Mosleh Arani, A., Etesami, H. 2023a. Assessment of air pollution (dust) tolerance index in three desert species: Seidlitzia rosmarinus, Haloxylon aphyllum, and Nitraria schoberi under salinity stress. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 195(7): 838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11391-7

43. Najafi Zilaie, M., Mosleh Arani, A., Etesami, H. 2023b. The significance of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria in enhancing air pollution tolerance index (APTI) for greenbelt plants to mitigate dust-related issues. Frontiers in Plant Science, 14: Article 1098368. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1098368

44. Najafi Zilaie, M., Mosleh Arani, A., Etesami, H., Dinarvand, M. 2022a. Halotolerant rhizobacteria improve salinity and dust tolerance in the desert halophyte Nitraria schoberi, enhancing its physiological and nutritional status. Applied Soil Ecology, 179: Article 104578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2022.104578

45. Najafi Zilaie, M., Mosleh Arani, A., Etesami, H., Dinarvand, M. 2022b. Enhanced salinity and dust stress tolerance in the desert halophyte Haloxylon aphyllum through halotolerant plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13: Article 948260. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.948260

46. Neocleous, D., Vasilakakis, M. 2007. The impact of NaCl stress on red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L. ‘Autumn Bliss’). Scientia Horticulturae, 112(3): 282-289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2006.12.033

47. Ortigosa, F., Valderrama-Martín, J. M., Urbano-Gámez, J. A., García-Martín, M. L., Ávila, C., Cánovas, F. M., Cañas, R. A. 2020. The form of inorganic nitrogen influences nutrient allocation and metabolic responses in maritime pine seedlings. Plants, 9(4): 481. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9040481

48. Polash, M. A. S., Sakil, M. A., Hossain, M. A. 2019. Plant responses and their physiological and biochemical defense mechanisms against salinity: A comprehensive review. Tropical Plant Research, 6(2): 250–274. https://doi.org/10.22271/tpr.2019.v6.i2.033

49. Rad, M. H., Soltani, M., Zare, M., Tagamolian, M. 2014. The effects of drought stress on physiological and morphological traits in various populations of black saxaul (Haloxylon aphyllum). Iranian Journal of Range and Desert Research, 21(4): 720-733.

50. Rajput, V. D., Harish, Singh, R. K., Verma, K. K., Sharma, L., Quiroz-Figueroa, F. R., Meena, M., Gour, V. S., Minkina, T., Sushkova, S., Mandzhieva, S. 2021. Recent advances in enzymatic antioxidant defense mechanisms in plants, particularly regarding abiotic stress. Biology, 10(4): 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10040267

51. Rashidi, Sh., Shirani Rad, A. H., Ayene Band, A., Javidfar, F., Lak, S. H. 2012. Investigating the relationship between drought stress tolerance and physiological parameters in canola genotypes (B. napus L.). Annals of Biological Research, 3(12): 564-569.

52. Rasool, A., Muhammad, S., Tayyab, M., et al. 2025. Ecological evaluation of dominant roadside plants through APTI and API for sustainable green belt development in cosmopolitan city (Lahore) of Pakistan. Scientific Reports, 15(1): 10496. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-76882-0

53. Reynolds, J. F., Smith, D. M. S., Lambin, E. F., Turner, B. L., Mortimore, M., Batterbury, S. P. J., Downing, T. E., Dowlatabadi, H., Fernández, R. J., Herrick, J. E., Huber-Sannwald, E., Jiang, H., Leemans, R., Lynam, T., Maestre, F. T., Ayarza, M., Walker, B. 2007. Addressing global desertification: Establishing a scientific basis for dryland development. Science, 316(5826): 847–851. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1131634

54. Ritchie, S. W., Nguyen, H. T. 1990. Leaf water content and gas exchange parameters of two drought-resistant wheat genotypes. Crop Science, 30(1): 105-111. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1990.0011183X003000010025x

55. Sapkota, S., Shrestha, S. M. 2024. Assessment of air pollution tolerance index and anticipated performance index of roadside plants used for greenbelt development in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Environmental Challenges, 14: 100818.

56. Schachtman, D. P., Munns, R. 1992. Sodium accumulation in the leaves of Triticum species with differing salt tolerance. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 19(3): 331–340. https://doi.org/10.1071/PP9920331

57. Shilev, S. 2020. Plant growth-promoting bacteria as mitigators of soil salinity stress in plants. Applied Sciences, 10(20): 7326. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10207326

58. Smirnoff, N. 1996. The role and metabolism of ascorbic acid in plants. Annals of Botany, 78(6): 661-669. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbo.1996.0175

59. Sunita, K., Srivastava, M., Abbasi, P., Muruganandam, M. 2019. The effect of salinity on growth and N2-fixation in Melilotus indicus. Journal of Plant Science and Research, 35(1): 109-119.

60. Swami, A., Bhatt, D., Joshi, P. C. 2004. Impact of vehicular pollution on Sal (Shorea robusta) and Rohini (Mallotus philippensis) in Asarori, Dehradun. Himalayan Journal of Environment Zoology, 18(1): 57-61.

61. Taheri Analojeh, A., Azimzadeh, H. R., Mosleh Arani, A., Sodaiezadeh, H. 2016. Comparative study of the short-term effects of dust on the physiological characteristics of three species: Pinus eldarica, Cupressus sempervirens, and Ligustrum ovalifolium. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 9(4): 290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-015-2290-9

62. Tang, H., Niu, L., Wei, J., Chen, X., Chen, Y. 2019. Phosphorus limitation enhances salt tolerance in maize by increasing tissue mass density, osmolyte accumulation, and inhibiting Na+ uptake. Frontiers in Plant Science, 10: 856. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00856

63. Veraplakorn, V., Nanakorn, M., Kaveeta, L., Suwanwong, S., Bennett, I. J. 2013. Ion accumulation variations as indicators of salt tolerance in seedlings and callus of Stylosanthes guianensis. Theoretical and Experimental Plant Physiology, 25(2): 106-115. https://doi.org/10.1590/S2197-00252013000200005

64. Waling, I., van Vark, W., Houba, V. J. G., van der Lee, J. J. 1989. Soil and plant analysis, a series of syllabi. Part 7: Plant analysis procedures. Wageningen Agriculture University.

65. Wang, Q., Li, S., Li, J., Huang, D. 2024. The roles and utilization of nitrogen in plants. Forests, 15(7): 1191. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15071191

66. Wang, R., Wang, C., Feng, Q., Liou, R. M., Lin, Y. F. 2021. The application of a biological inoculant containing salt-tolerant bacteria to stimulate plant growth under various saline soil conditions. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 31(3): 398–407. https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.2011.11006

67. Yadav, R., Pandey, P. 2020. Evaluation of air pollution tolerance index (APTI) and anticipated performance index (API) of roadside plants for developing greenbelts in urban Bathinda City, Punjab, India. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 105: 906–914. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-020-03034-1

68. Zahran, H. H. 1999. Rhizobium-legume symbiosis and nitrogen fixation under extreme conditions in arid climates. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 63(4): 968–989. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.63.4.968-989.1999

69. Zhao, X., Guo, P., Yang, Y., Peng, H. 2021. The impact of air pollution on the physiological characteristics of Ligustrum lucidum Ait. leaves in Luoyang, China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 193(8): 530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09311-8

70. Zia-Khan, S., Spreer, W., Yang, P., Zhao, X., Othmanli, H., He, X., Müller, J. 2015. The effect of dust deposition on stomatal conductance and leaf temperature of cotton in northwest China. Water, 7(1): 116-131. https://doi.org/10.3390/w7010116

71. Zilaie, M., Mosleh Arani, A., Etesami, H., Dinarvand, M., Dolati, A. 2022. Halotolerant plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria mitigate salinity and dust stress, enhancing forage yield in the desert halophyte Seidlitzia rosmarinus. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 201: Article 104952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2022.104952

Send email to the article author

Add your comments about this article

Mendeley

Zotero

RefWorks

Amiri M, Mosleh Arani A, Najafi Zilaie M. Investigating the Impact of Salt Dust on Morpho-Physiological Characteristics and the Air Pollution Tolerance Index in Several Halophyte Species. PEC 2026; 13 (27) : 10
URL: http://pec.gonbad.ac.ir/article-1-1026-en.html

Rights and permissions
	This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

Volume 13, Issue 27 (3-2026)

Back to browse issues page

Persian site map - English site map - Created in 0.18 seconds with 37 queries by YEKTAWEB 4774